Teaching Asian Canadian History

Changing Education for a Changing Society 

Nova Scotia is changing. After decades of stable immigration rates in Nova Scotia, data from 2021 showed more than a twofold increase over the previous five-year period (Figure 1). Immigrants still make up a lower percentage of the population than in many other parts of Canada (7.4 per cent); however, to avoid the negative consequences of demographic decline, the province hopes to double its population by 2060. Much of that growth will come through immigration.  

How Nova Scotians respond to these changes remains uncertain, but many of the province’s K-12 teachers want to play a proactive and constructive role in equipping their students with greater awareness of what it means to be a citizen amid growing ethnic, racial, and cultural diversity. In recent years, Nova Scotia’s curriculum has become more reflective of the province’s long-standing diversity, now offering courses on Mi’kmaw Studies and African Canadian Studies.  

But there is more to do. That includes a greater focus on teaching Asian Canadian history. According to a 2021 survey of 12-to-17-year-olds across Canada, only seven per cent of respondents in Atlantic Canada “learned a lot” about the internment of Japanese Canadians during the Second World War, and only two per cent learned a lot about the Chinese Head Tax. When asked about the 1914 Komagata Maru incident, arguably the most well-known episode in South Asian Canadian history, the number was less than one per cent (Figure 2). 

This resource guide is a modest but meaningful step toward filling that gap. It is based on the insights of 11 Nova Scotia junior high and high school teachers who reviewed a set of teaching materials on Asian Canadian history. Their work focused on a specific topic — the Chinese Head Tax — as a kind of exemplar or ‘test case’ for how this and similar topics could be incorporated into provincial classrooms. As part of their work, they were asked to: 

1. articulate why it is important for Nova Scotian students to learn about Asian Canadian history; 

2. identify key themes and possible ‘entry points’ for existing social studies and humanities courses, and;  

3. reflect on how to address the issues of racism and discrimination that defined so much of this history, as well as how to do so within different school and community contexts. 

The information below does not encompass the totality of these teachers’ work; nonetheless, it includes a set of recommendations that emerged from their engagement with the topic; a list of resources on Chinese Canadian history, including ready-made teaching materials; and a supplemental section on information about Chinese Canadian history in eastern Canada, albeit noting that there is more that can be done to develop teaching materials that are specific to Nova Scotia. 

No single resource guide could capture the vastness and complexity of Asian Canadian history. It is hoped, however, that what is presented here will could help to mobilize greater attention and resources for increasing awareness among young Nova Scotians about this vitally important dimension of Canadian history. 

Circular Connections

In thinking about how to integrate Asian Canadian history into junior high and high school teaching, the participating teachers identified courses that offer meaningful curricular and thematic connections. These include (but are not limited to): 

• Canadian History 11 

• Citizenship 9 

• English Language Arts 

• French Language Arts 

• African Canadian Studies 11 

• Mi’kmaw Studies 11 

• Global Geography 12 

• Global History 12 

• Global Politics 12 

In addition, the teachers reflected on two overarching questions: how to ensure that Asian Canadian history education in Nova Scotia would be high-quality, and how to ensure that it would feel relevant and be accessible to as many students as possible. Their thoughts are summarized in the following recommendations. 

Recommendations

1) Don’t shield students from the realities that Asian Canadian communities experienced. 

In one of the videos (“Canadian apartheid”), Canada – and especially B.C. – during the time of the Chinese Head Tax was described as a “white supremacist society,” comparable to South Africa’s apartheid system and Australia’s “White Australia” policy. Some teachers and students may be taken aback by the potency of such references and terminology. However, an examination of the historical experiences of Asian Canadian communities affirms the accuracy and appropriateness of these terms and comparisons. 

Nevertheless, teachers need to take precautions when exposing their students to these realities. For example, primary source materials can be a double-edged sword. On one hand, materials such as political cartoons, quotes, and media reports help students appreciate how blatant and widespread racist attitudes were. On the other hand, the starkness of some of the language and racist depictions in the images can be traumatizing, especially for racialized students. 

Similarly, students should closely examine the processes and forms into which racism became institutionalized; what types of authority were active in sustaining these systems; and, historically, who benefited economically and politically from such systems. Official apologies as gestures of redress are another opportunity for students to use their critical thinking skills to ask questions such as what motivates these gestures and whether they are effective. 

Finally, one teacher stressed the importance of having the support of one’s school leaders when addressing these kinds of sensitive issues. While a teacher could take many precautions to avoid backlash from one or a small number of students (or their parents), reactions are not always predictable. If a misunderstanding were to arise, a teacher would want reassurances that their school principal is supportive of what the teacher is trying to do.   

2) Highlight examples of agency and allyship. 

In his chapter on Halifax in Chinatown (see Resources section below), author Paul Yee documents examples of some individuals in the early 1900s choosing to do the right thing, albeit within the social and political context of the time. That includes (what we refer to today as) allyship by the local Black community.  

It is important to spotlight such examples because they remind students that even when racist attitudes and institutions were prevalent, individuals still had agency. Reflecting on these historical cases of agency and allyship can facilitate reflection and classroom discussion on present-day examples of agency and allyship. It could also prompt conversations about the bystander effect and its effects, both historically and now. 

3) Find relevance and connections with eastern Canada. 

Overall, there is little awareness in Atlantic Canada of Asian Canadian history, including how this history unfolded in eastern Canada. That includes, for example, how the experiences of Chinese Canadian communities here resembled experiences in B.C. and other parts of Canada, and how they were different (see the Resources Supplement below.) 

While some information about local Chinese Canadian history does exist, it has yet to be compiled into classroom-ready resources. As such, part of making Asian Canadian history more easily accessible to teachers and students would include the development of resources that show local connections. 

4) Provide professional development for teaching Asian Canadian history. 

Few Nova Scotia teachers have received formal training on teaching Chinese Canadian or other areas of Asian Canadian history. There should be professional development opportunities that connect teachers with experts and Chinese Canadian community members whose families experienced this history. These sessions should also support teachers in developing greater awareness and strategies for how to address issues related to racism and discrimination that arise in class. 

5) Support the development of French-language resources. 

Expanding K-12 education on Asian Canadian history should include greater support for French-language teachers, including ready-to-use teaching materials. While some of the background information is available in French, many of the teaching materials are not.  

The same is true of primary source materials: some were originally produced in both languages, but many, such as those drawn from city or provincial media, were not. The video and audio resources are useful for building teachers’ knowledge, their use in French-language classrooms is limited because the audio is available only in English.

In 2021, the Angus Reid Institute polled 12-to-17-year-olds across the country on their school-based experiences with diversity and what they have learned about Canada’s history of racism and discrimination. Only three per cent of the responding students said they had “learned a lot” about the 1914 Komagata Maru incident, arguably the most well-known episode in South Asian Canadian history. In British Columbia (B.C.), the province where this history unfolded, only 10 per cent of students said they learned a lot about it. 

A single data point is limited in what it can tell us about students’ awareness and understanding of this history. Nevertheless, it can be a useful jumping-off point for reflecting on the following: 

1. When teaching about early 20th-century South Asian Canadian history, what is most important for students to know (e.g. key themes)?  

2. How well do existing teaching materials and popular narratives capture what is most significant? What are some alternative interpretations, framings, and approaches to storytelling? 

3. How does a focus only on the Komagata Maru incident — and inattention to other related events and contexts — limit students’ understanding of this history? 

4. How can drawing connections between this history and the present be done in a way that is both honest and constructive? 

This resource guide was produced with these and other questions in mind. It is based on a review of teaching resources by a group of B.C. educators and subject matter experts (see the Acknowledgements section). It begins with a synthesis of the educators’ observations and reflections on these materials, as well as their thoughts on how we might give the next generation of British Columbians (and other Canadian youth) a deeper and more sophisticated awareness of the early history and experiences of South Asian Canadians. 

When teaching about early 20th-century South Asian Canadian history, what is most important for students to know (e.g. key themes)?  

• The Komagata Maru episode cannot be understood in isolation from the wider spectrum and chronology of Asian migrants’ experiences, especially in B.C. This includes the anti-Asian riots of 1907; the aftermath of those riots; and the Continuous Journey resolution of 1908, which was a factor in the Komagata Maru confrontation.    

• South Asians’ status as British subjects requires us to consider the dimension of empire, which differentiates this community’s status in some ways from that of other Asian populations in Canada at that time. 

• Embedding racism in laws and policies such as the Continuous Journey resolution (and numerous other laws and acts) was an attempt to give them a veneer of legitimacy and make them look innocuous.  

How well do existing teaching materials and popular narratives capture what is most significant? What are some alternative interpretations, framings, and approaches to storytelling? 

• In some portrayals of this history, South Asians are described as being “defiant”; this could be an opportunity to highlight the power dynamics at play. Why would South Asians want to come to Canada? Who were the “gatekeepers” who decided who was allowed into Canada? Who was considered an ‘ideal’ immigrant, and who was not wanted?  

• The South Asian community should not be portrayed strictly as victims. There is an element of activism and a ‘resistance’ narrative that should be emphasized, as this resistance is something about which the community is proud. 

• Teachers need to get comfortable using terms like white supremacy, white supremacy culture, and the white dominance of the British Empire. 

• How are the issues of dehumanization and fearmongering addressed in portrayals of this history? Are teachers attuned to such things such as references to South Asian migrants as “Hindoos” or “Hindus” to “other” them and foster the feeling that they were threatening? 

How does a focus only on the Komagata Maru incident — and insufficient attention to other related events and contexts —– limit students’ understanding of South Asian Canadian (and broader Canadian) history? 

• Some South Asian students have a “This again?” reaction when taught about the Komagata Maru history. There needs to be more variety and different types of storytelling that offer students new and different perspectives. 

How can drawing connections between this history and the present be done in a way that is both honest and constructive? 

• Students should explore ongoing understandings of Canada being “white” and how this manifests in daily experiences. A good resource for sparking this discussion is the “Where are you from?” video, which helps to focus on we imagine places like Canada as being “white” and others (that is, non-whites) not belonging.  

• Students should be encouraged to read or view the history materials on this topic with a critical eye. For example, one of the video resources concludes by saying that the Komagata Maru event “helped pave the way to greater equality.” Is this a romanticized notion? How does this notion relate to our understanding of the legacies of racism and the lingering notion that ideal and ‘true’ citizens of Canada are white and European? 

• Students should also use their critical thinking skills to ask questions about official apologies and memorials and investigate how Canadians have responded to — and sometimes defaced or vandalized — those memorials. They could also explore recent media coverage of Indian international students in Canada. 

Coming Fall 2024

The section below contains short descriptions of the resources teachers reviewed on the Chinese Head Tax, along with some notations on some of them about their usability and adaptability for Nova Scotia classrooms. 

Open School BC, Bamboo Shoots: Chinese Canadian legacies in BC 

This is a comprehensive resource that highlights a key theme: that “BC’s multicultural landscape was not a linear progression from an exclusive society to an inclusive one,” but rather one in which there were “periods of contribution and early pioneering among different groups that were accepting of each other, and then a period of decline into exclusion and legislated discrimination” (p. 3).  

These materials were developed with the six Historical Thinking concepts in mind, and include upper elementary and high school units; historical photographs; various issue backgrounders; and archive packages with primary source materials, fact sheets, and short audio and video interviews.  

The Additional Resources link to related materials, for example, on First Nations and Chinese Canadian Relations, Introducing the Unit with Fiction, Teaching with Primary Sources, Debating Skills, and others. 

• Teacher Commentary on Adaptability for Nova Scotia Classrooms 

The teachers focused on Lesson 3 (Historical Perspectives of Chinese Canadians in BC) from the high school-level unit. They commented that: 

• Their comprehensiveness and the thoughtfulness with which they were developed makes these resources very attractive. The archive packets, with photos and primary source materials already compiled, are also useful.  

• A teacher would likely need some prior knowledge of the topic to use these materials effectively. In such cases, they could review other background materials or take advantage of professional development opportunities (if available) and/or access to subject matter experts. 

• On a practical note: 

  • Some of the language in the primary source materials will be unfamiliar to students (e.g., “writ of mandamus”), thus requiring the teacher to pre-identify and define such terms. 
  • The print quality of some of the primary source materials is difficult to read. Teachers might want to create a separate version of the written text for reference.  

Canadian Encyclopedia, The Chinese Head Tax in Canada (available in French and in a Plain Language Summary) 

Critical Thinking Consortium, Reasons for the Head Tax  

This resource includes 10 one-page primary source documents (quotes, political cartoons, media) and four secondary source materials. The Teacher notes section provides a condensed timeline of related events, as well as a Guide for using history docs and Strategies for investigating historical documents.  

There are also links to a related/supporting resources, such as the Causes of the 1907 anti-Asian riots; Chinese Canadian teenagers 1910-1947, Consequences of the Chinese Exclusion Act, and others.  

• Teacher Commentary on Adaptability for Nova Scotia Classrooms 

• The primary documents packet has a lot of variety, which would help students appreciate the many ways racism was expressed – in official documents, in politicians’ statements to the media, in visual form (e.g. political cartoons), and so on. 

• As with other use of primary source materials, teachers will want to prepare students for the racist language and images and take the necessary precautions.  

Vancouver Sun (video, 4:58), “Canadian apartheid: Chinese Head Tax and racism’s legacy” 

Voices into Action, Unit 4, Chapter 4: Chinese immigration 

This resource provides a succinct overview of the history, starting with the imposition of the Head Tax, then leading to the Chinese Exclusion Act, the repeal of the Act, and efforts at redress. It includes a short (four-minute) video, a timeline of relevant events, brief background information, discussion questions, and five ready-to-use activity options. 

Adaptability for Nova Scotia Classrooms 

These materials are ‘lighter’ in volume than some of the other resources, making them a good option for teachers who want to stimulate students’ thinking around core questions but do not have a lot of time for preparation. The discussion questions, activity ideas would be relatively easy to translate into French.  

Paul Yee, “Halifax: From Sea to Shining Sea,” in Chinatown: An Illustrated History of the Chinese Communities of Victoria, Vancouver, Calgary, Winnipeg, Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal and Halifax (available at the Halifax Public Library). 

Other Resources

Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21, The Chinese Immigration Act, 1885 original text (French) 

Chinese Canadian Museum, The faces & places of those who owned C.I. certificates 

Presents images of people – many of them children – who were issued C.I. (Chinese Immigration) certificates. Two of them, both children, were in Nova Scotia (Halifax and Glace Bay). 

Knowledge Network (video series), “British Columbia: An untold history” (free with registration). See “Episode 3: Migration + Resilience”; first 45 minutes provide a superb overview of pre-WWII Asian Canadian history (including segment on the Head Tax). 

Canadian Museum of History, “Tips for Teaching Difficult History” (available in French) 

BC Teachers’ Federation, “Making space: Teaching for diversity and social justice throughout the K-12 curriculum” 

Facing History and Ourselves, “Preparing students for difficult conversations” 

Learning for Justice, “Let’s talk: Facilitating critical conversations with students” 

Resource Supplements: Atlantic Canada

Nova Scotia

Albert Lee, “Chinese Canadians on the East Coast,” Saltscapes; a shorter version of Albert’s – and his family’s – experiences in Nova Scotia can be found here.  

“South-end house helps tell story of Chinese community in Halifax,” CBC, July 29, 2022. 

(Video) “Chinese business history with photographer Albert Lee,” Why Halifax Documentary Series 

Other Atlantic Provinces

Greg Mercer and Jimmy Huang, “Monks, money and the fierce debate over PEI’s scarce land,” Globe and Mail, August 12, 2023. This could be an interesting case study for comparing the experiences of newcomers from Asia now and in the past, including how they are perceived by locals. 

Newfoundland and Labrador Case Study

Although not part of Canada at the time, Newfoundland and Labrador is nonetheless is a useful case study of how members of the Chinese community pursued a livelihood there, including by opening successful businesses like cafes and laundries. 

As background, when the first Chinese immigrants began arriving in Newfoundland in the late 1800s and early 1900s, there were some local missionaries who had been to China and were thus somewhat culturally familiar with this population. However, as Chinese immigration picked up pace, with more than 50 Chinese arriving in a single day in 1904, negative attitudes among the public began to surface. These attitudes are captured in local newspaper articles (see Other Information below).  

In 1906, Newfoundland enacted its own Head Tax under the Act Respecting the Immigration of Chinese Persons, which mandated that each Chinese person entering Newfoundland would have to pay $300. This Head Tax, enacted before Newfoundland joined Canada in 1949, is a unique aspect of present-day Atlantic Canada’s history with Chinese immigration.  

Brief Timeline of Events: 

1895: First Chinese laundry opened in Newfoundland by the first settled Chinese immigrants. 

1906: The Act Respecting the Immigration of Chinese Persons (Newfoundland’s Head Tax) goes into effect. 

1949: Newfoundland joins Canada; Newfoundland Head Tax repealed. 

2006: Newfoundland government issues formal apology 100 years after the introduction of the Newfoundland Head Tax (see press release). The federal government also apologizes. 

2010: Newfoundland Chinese Head Tax monument created in St. John’s to honour the memory of Chinese immigrants who settled in Canada. 

Other Information 

• Heritage Newfoundland and Labrador provides a short description of the history of Chinese Canadians in the area.  

• The Newfoundland & Labrador Historical Society offers a video presentation, “From a Sojourner’s Life to Family Reunification: Reflections on the Experiences of Chinese Immigrants in Newfoundland, 1890s-1950s,” by Miriam Wright and Robert Hong.  

• Memorial University Digital Archives Initiative has a collection of short newspaper articles, starting with the first known arrival of Chinese residents in 1895, as well as reports on their businesses and incidents of hostility and even violence toward them. 

• See also Miriam Wright, "The most modern dining hall in the city: Chinese immigrants, restaurants, and social spaces in St. John’s, Newfoundland, 1918–1945." 

The teachers assessed a series of graphs for their suitability for addressing historical and contemporary immigration, race, and inclusivity. The graphs that follow are those that were seen as having the most potential for stimulating thinking and discussion. Each graph is presented along with some of the teachers’ questions, ideas for classroom use, and comments.

See the download tabs above.

• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Komagata Maru (available in French) 

• Historica Canada (video): “The Sikh migrants who challenged Canadian immigration law” (approx. 7 minutes; available in French) 

  • See also Komagata Maru learning resource (available in French) 
     

• City of Vancouver (video): Remembering Komagata Maru (10:44) 

• Open School BC: Saffron threads: Exploring South Asian culture, history, and heritage 

  • Activity plans for all grade levels, including social studies grades 7-9, Design a South Asian museum exhibit, and grades 10-12, Canada’s immigration policies and the Komagata Maru 
  • Short Backgrounders on early immigration, South Asian Canadians, and other topics. 
     

• Sikh Heritage BC: Lesson plans for various historical and cultural topics, including (but not limited to): 

  • Sikh migration 
  • Who is Canadian? 
  • Komagata Maru apologies 
     

See also its poster series, downloadable and designed for classroom display. The series features multiple historical figures and aspects of Sikh heritage in Canada. 

• The Nameless Collective podcast: Episodes on numerous historical topics in South Asian Canadian history. See, for example, episodes on: 

  • Country of origin 
  • White Canada forever 
  • Detained and deported  
     

• The Critical Thinking Consortium (CT2): Related resources such as Causes of the 1907 Anti-Asian riots and Government response to the 1907 Anti-Asian riots, which include collections of primary source materials.  

• Knowledge Network (video): British Columbia: An untold history, esp. Episode 3: “Migration + Resilience” (58:05); first 45 minutes is a gripping introduction to Asian Canadian history, from the arrival of the first Chinese migrants to Japanese internment. 

• Dictionary of Canadian Biography: Kaur (Kor), Harnam: One of the few available stories of South Asian Canadian women who came to Canada in the early 1900s (available in French). 

• South Asian Canadian educator Amrita Kauldher shares how her experiences growing up in a small town in northern B.C. illustrated the need for antiracist pedagogy in “Stories of resistance: Resilience in the face of racism in education,” published in BCTF Teacher Magazine (2020). 

• Challenging Racist “British Columbia”: 150 Years and Counting: Chapter 4, “Resilient communities: South Asia and beyond.” See also the Teachers Corner for a list of pre- and post-chapter questions and critical thinking questions.  

• Heritage Minutes (video, one minute): Paldi, the first “multicultural settlement in a designed way” in B.C. (available in French). 

• CBC Radio’s The Secret Life of Canada podcast episode (approx. 32 minutes) on “The Punjabi market.”  

Coming Fall 2024

The Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada (APF Canada) would like to thank the following:

British Columbia educators: Shamilla Birring, Sabrina Deo, Amrita Kauldher, Kelsey Lee, Amandeep Parmar, Jasleen Sidhu, and Elaine Su. 

Nova Scotia educators: Zach Ackerson, Ben Clendenning, Josh Foote, Danielle Gauthier, Nikki McCormick, Christina McKay, Devin McKay, John MacKenzie, Taunya Pynn Crowe, Bianca Ridler, and Ian Shaw. 

Ontario educators: Timothy Au, Gail Bedeau-Hopkinson, Lindsey Berthiaume, Sandra Quan-D’Eramo, Sherry Pom Foreman, Debbie Huang, Stella Kim, Linda Kwan, Mary Hanna Reyes Marshall, Megan Patullo, Irene Peng, Louise Puevas, Thao Nguyen, Celia Saroya, Izumi Scherer, and Steve Yamada.

APF Canada is grateful to Dominque Bautista, Dr. Andrea Geiger, Albert Lee, Catherine Oikawa, Milan Singh, Dr. Sharanjit Kaur Sandhra, Kelly Tang, and Dr. Henry Yu for sharing their expertise and/or research assistance.  

We also thank Wendy Driscoll of the Nova Scotia Social Studies Teachers’ Association; Christine Paget of the B.C. Social Studies Teachers’ Association; the Asian Canadian Educators Network (ACENet), and the UBC Initiative for Student Teaching and Research in Chinese Canadian Studies for their support.

We acknowledge the financial support of the Government of Canada. 

Any errors contained in this document are the responsibility of APF Canada, not of any of the contributors mentioned above. 

About APF Canada 

The Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada (APF Canada) is a not-for-profit organization focused on Canada’s relations with Asia. Our mission is to be Canada’s catalyst for engagement with Asia and Asia’s bridge to Canada. Our research provides high-quality, relevant, and timely information, insights, and perspectives on Canada-Asia relations. Since 2017, we have also committed to support programming that helps young Canadians develop greater awareness and understanding of Asia through our Asia Pacific Curriculum Project.